Figure 1 Proton paths (PP) to fusion.
Figure 2 The abundances of nuclei in the sun, measured and calculated.
Introduction
Background Science
Nuclear Binding
Controlled Nuclear Fusion Power
STELLAR FUSION REACTIONS
[(AZ)⅓ + 0.62]2
NZ+2 = NZ
5.5(AZ+2 – AZ)
Fusion Foundations
Australia, Rest of World
America and Europe
Further details on the mechanism of nuclear binding can be found in Chapter 5 of
The Common Sense Universe.
Further details of the fusion mechanism can be found in Chapter 6 of
The Common Sense Universe
Further details of proton and neutron structures can be found in chapter 3 of
The Common Sense Universe
Figure 3. Schematic illustrations of a proton
Figure 4. Schematic illustrations of a neutron
A
B
C
Figure 5. Oblique side view of a deuteron, A, with plan views of deuteron, B and triton, C
Is nuclear fusion a pipe dream that will always be 30 to 50 years away? We believe it is not and we have the science to back that up.
What follows is a systematic introduction to a new approach to nuclear fusion. This presentation proposes a mechanism that adheres closely to stellar fusion principles. It forwards a fusion mechanism could yield better results in significantly smaller and cheaper reactors and in a shorter time frame than the current state of the art. It uses a newly developed theory of nucleon structures that answers dozens of puzzles currently encountered in nuclear physics. It is an eye-opener into how hydrogen can be fused in reactors that mimic fusion in the sun.
Along the way it shows how far current fusion researchers have drifted away from how fusion works in the sun.
Nuclear fusion's promise of unlimited power, free of CO2 emissions, has enthralled scientists, politicians, and the public for decades. Despite the large time and money spent on fusion research, its promise is still believed to be decades from fulfilment. Fusion researchers portray it as imitating the way the sun generates its power, but is it?
Figure 1 shows the fusion reactions that occur in the sun.
Proton path PPI, shows that 61% of the sun's fusion energy is generated by helium-3 fusion. The remaining 39% is generated by fusing protons with lithium-7.
Both the PPI and PPII reactions involve 4 protons in the one fusion event. Current fusion models suggest high energies are required to force two protons together in a single fusion event. That is a big mistake that introduces unnecessary complexity.
Those reactions occur in the sun's central core, where the temperature is about 15 million degrees C. That equates to "all particles have an energy of about 1,500 electron volts (1.5 keV)". Fusion in the sun happens when two nuclei in close proximity, move towards each other with a combined maximum energy of about 3 keV.
Several different methods are being trialed to achieve fusion in reactors on Earth. In the Tokamak approach, particles to be fused are sent round in large circular toroids a few metres in radius with a much larger perimeter at energies of 100 keV, a temperature of ≈ 100 M˚C. That is an energy over 30 times that required for solar fusion.
Fusion researchers typically use the deuterium/tritium reaction, believing this to be their best candidate, see reaction {1
2D + 3T⟶ 4He + n + 17.5 MeV {1
Figure 1 shows reaction {1 is not on the pathways of fusion power occurring in the sun. It also has other problems. Tritium does not exist naturally. It is difficult to produce. The neutrons released in the reaction make the chamber walls brittle and radioactive.
That is a third big mistake fusion researchers make in trying to reproduce solar fusion in reactors on Earth. It is not even a reaction that gives fusion power in the sun.
When attempts to reproduce solar fusion in reactors on Earth differ so much from reality, is it any wonder that progress toward controlled nuclear fusion is slow.
Despite those and other limitations, the deuterium/tritium reaction, {1, is still seen by fusion researchers as the most promising fusion pathway. Multiple methods are currently being developed in attempts to exploit that reaction.
Another method is inertial confinement. 2D and 3T molecules are compressed to to a density about 150 gm/cm2, the sun's core density. The hope is the high speed and density will bring the nuclei together with sufficient energy and proximity to fuse.
Some reactors have shown that it does work. The random positions of the nuclei means some will fuse before others. Unless constrained the, heat from these early fusion events will scatter the remaining nuclei before they can fuse, thus undermining its effectiveness.
Other methods include firing high energy nuclei at each other through magnetic pinch confinement. It is difficult to achieve the high particle densities required for large fusion output. If fusion does not occur for all particles, the energy input is not recovered. Even if those problems are overcome, repeating the confined process in one location within a reactor puts huge demands on the materials in that location.
Controlled nuclear fusion is touted as humanity's future power source. Huge research efforts and resources are applied to overcome these problems. None of them use the fusion mechanisms that occur in the sun. None have achieved any significant success.
The following is a brief summary or how and why fusion occurs in the sun. It is followed by a description of a technology that is designed to use the sun's fusion mechanism. It is based on advanced nuclear physics research. It offers a method for attaining fusion in smaller and more versatile reactors than the current technologies in development.
It is suggested a better approach is to replicate the sun's fusion conditions. As mentioned above, these include:
1) Nuclei confined by the sun's high pressure/density produced by its gravity.
2) Nuclei at a temperature of 15 M˚C having thermal motion equivalent to an energy 1.5 keV.
3) That gives the nuclei a maximum fusion energy of 3 keV as the two nuclei move towards each other and fuse.
With that as the background, it is time to see what the sun fuses under those conditions. Figure 2 shows the measured abundances of elements in the suns surface. The green line joins the observed abundances of the elements plotted against their atomic number.
The blue calculated curve shows the predicted abundances of even Z nuclei when fusion occurs in the sun. Below oxygen (Z = 8), most of the even Z nuclei are within a factor of 3 of their observed abundances, with data that is spread over 7 orders of magnitude. Those elements that deviate from the trend have valid reasons.
The agreement between observed, green, and predicted, blue, shows there really is no repulsion between protons and nuclei such as Hg, which has 80 protons. Fusion experts believe there should be because their models use electric charge distributed uniformly throughout them.
Iron (Z = 26) has a particularly high value because it is the element with the highest binding energy per nucleon as well as the last exothermic fusion reaction. Lead (Z = 82) is high because it is the end product of most radioactive decay of nuclei of higher Z. Thorium (Z = 90) and uranium (Z = 92) have low values because they are radioactive. Many nuclei decay during the long time that it takes for heavy isotopes fused in the sun's core, to reach its surface.
The blue curve was calculated from the equation:
using oxygen's abundance, N8 = 1.5 x 107
Attributing the solar abundances to fusion within the sun is very different from the common explanation that they were formed during local supernova explosions. This model successfully predicts most observed even Z solar abundances to within a factor of 3 over 7 orders of magnitude. A deviation by less than 3 parts in 10 million is not co-incidence.
The important feature of figure 2 and its equation is that there is no repulsion term between approaching protons and the number of protons in a nucleus. This applies equally well for Z = 8 as for Z = 80. And for any other Z. This shows why fusion occurs in the sun at low energies.
Knowing the nature of nuclear binding, and that fusion occurs without positive charge repulsion, makes a big difference in any attempt to reproduce solar fusion on Earth.
To find out why there is no mutual repulsion, we need to look at the way nucleons are usually portrayed, as well as the way they are in reality.
Figure 3A show how protons are often visualized – fuzzy little spherical structures. They are coloured red to show positive charge. They are fuzzy because their charge declines with increasing radius. They do not have a defined boundary. Electric charge is thought to be distributed throughout them, with a magnetic field somewhere within them.
Figure 3B is a schematic illustration more representative of their reality. They are best visualized as a rotating plane of electric charge, shown in red, surrounded by a three dimensional magnetic field, the green lines. The origin of that charge plane has been measured to an accuracy of ≈ 10–17 m. Their magnetic field is perpendicular to their charge plane. When they move, one of their magnetic poles always leads in their travel direction. That planar electric charge distribution, perpendicular to a proton's travel direction, is the reason that this model so accurately reproduces the observed solar element abundances.
Everything is electromagnetic. Nowhere in there is their something solid called mass. Its mass is in its electromagnetic field. Under the right conditions, that structure, along with its electric charge and magnetic field makes fusion so much easier to achieve.
Neutrons are similarly portrayed in traditional approaches. Figure 4A shows one as a fuzzy coloured black ball. Black simply indicates no net charge. There is also a magnetic field somewhere within it.
Figure 4 B shows a more realistic schematic representation of a neutron. Its rotating electric charge plane has sections that are half positive, red, and others that are half negative, blue. Neutrons have no external charge but have an internal charge distribution. Neutrons magnetic fields are smaller than those of protons, while still orienting perpendicular to that rotating charge plane. Everything, including its mass is electromagnetic.
Both nucleons are shown with the same spin. That is why their magnetic fields point in the opposite directions.
Everything presented above has been experimentally verified. More details of this and other information can be found in "The Common Sense Universe". This approach uses the quantum properties of nucleons and nuclei in order to achieve fusion. It is referred to as Quantum Fusion.
The importance of figure 2 should not be overlooked in any study of fusion techniques. There is simply no physical way by which the sun's observed element abundance can happen without the nucleons having the properties describe in this model. Details of how and why the nucleons have these properties can be found in the section
Figure 2, which shows the products of solar fusion, is rarely mentioned by fusion researchers as they tell us they are mimicing the the sun's heat generation. Figure 2 is the product of how fusion works in the sun and other stars. What follows is a methodology of how to work with fusion as it occurs in the sun.
The above shows how the reality of proton and neutron structures are very different from those used in standard nuclear fusion studies. When those structures are understood it becomes much easier to understand how neutral neutrons bind to positive protons.
The next step is to show how neutrons unite with protons to form the hydrogen isotopes deuterium, 2D and tritium, 3T. Deuterons are stable and occur naturally. Figure 5A shows an oblique side view of a deuteron. There are two important features. Part of the proton's positive charge, red, is attracted and attaches to the neutron's negative charge segments, blue. The overlapping opposing charge segments have almost no distance between them. That gives a strong division by zero electric charge attraction between the two.
Figure 5 B shows a plan view of a deuteron. Because there is not much repulsion between the proton and neutron there is no need for them to draw close to form the nucleus. Deuterons have a binding energy of 2.22 MeV.
The nucleons orient their spin so that their opposing magnetic fields are on the same side of their charge planes. That forms a closed loop magnetic field, N to S, on both sides, the small dotted black lines. That adds magnetic binding to the electric charge binding. They are the origins of the strong nuclear force between a proton and neutron in a deuteron. It makes deuterons spin 1 particles with a residual magnetic field similar to that of the protons field minus the neutrons field.
That mechanism, planar electric charges overlapping at essentially zero distance, and nucleons orienting their spin to give maximum magnetic attraction, is the origin of the strong nuclear force.
Figure 5 C shows a plan view of a triton. The like magnetic field between the proton and one neutron plus some like charge overlap between the neutrons means the nucleons have to be closer to be stable. They have a binding energy of 8.48 MeV. Tritons are spin half particles with a magnetic moment similar to that of a proton. They are physically smaller than deuterons, even though they have an additional neutron. Their approximate diameters are indicated by the longer dashed circles.
That is the briefest introduction to the structures of the nucleons and nuclei. It is very different that that used in the standard model of the nucleons. It has the advantages that it gives the mechanism of nuclear binding. It also answers dozens of question the that have evaded nuclear physicists for decades.
It clarifies the origins of the strong nuclear force as well as providing a few logical rules which the nucleons form all the different nuclei structures that are observed. It gives a good match for isotopes from hydrogen to uranium. It also explains a large number of features that current nuclear theory cannot explain.
These include deriving the structure and some properties of any nucleus of any Z and A; why the strong nuclear force is so strong, yet has such a limited range; the nuclear skin effect; why alpha particles are so easily knocked out of nuclei; why Z = 2 nuclei have the highest charge density, yet their neighbour, Z = 3, has the lowest charge density; how 235U fissions into the observed fragments, and much more!
In the study of fusion, it shows how the process occurs. It is not a matter of "get enough particles at high energy and hope for the best". It shows that protons, deuterons, and tritons all have magnetic moments with their charge planes perpendicular to their magnetic field. With the appropriate equipment design, those properties can be harnessed to make it much easier to achieve controlled nuclear fusion.
This mechanism of nuclear binding is very different from what is described in the accepted scientific literature. Without understanding the structure of the nucleons and how they bind to form nuclei, fusion studies are guesswork.
For example, figure 1 shows the fusion reactions in the sun that generate its heat. Current studies use tritium. It is not one of the solar fusion reactions, it has to be produced before it can be used. It releases a neutron that makes any fusion chamber material brittle and radioactive. It requires fusion energies of 100 keV and huge massively expensive equipment.
In contrast, figure 2 shows the results of this fusion mechanism. Those reactions occur at energies of ≈ 3 keV on nuclei constrained by the pressure/density due to the gravity of the sun's mass. It works! Nuclei energy of 3 keV is easy to achieve. Not so gravitational confinement. There are other mechanisms by which nuclei can be constrained.
There is evidence that constrained deuteron fusion reactions occur at lower voltages than when unconstrained. In Lattice Confinement Fusion, deuterons held in a crystal lattice fuse at lower voltages than in other situations.
That was attributed to the Oppenheimer/Phillips effect. They hypothesized that, when deuterons were constrained, the charge distribution shifted away from the charge of the other nucleus. Thus, fusion could occur at a lower voltage.
In this study, fusion occurs because the magnetic poles of the approaching nuclei orient the poles of the approached nuclei, inducing the opposing pole to be pointed towards it. It is therefore suggested that magnetic attraction is the impetus that allows fusion at the low voltages observed.
This method, like solar fusion, relies on the quantum properties of individual nucleons and nuclei. This quantum fusion process also offer the high probability of neutron free fusion reactions. It relies on the equipment design, not gravity, to constrain the nuclei.
It could be argued that the supply of helium-3 is so small and limited that it is not a viable fusion fuel. Figure 1 shows that proton-deuteron fusion producing helium-3 occurs in the sun. Any fusion methodology that reproduces the sun's fusion would also fuse helium-3. Fusing protons and deuterons to generate helium-3 releases 5.5 MeV, sufficient to also supply some electricity to the grid. Fusing helium-3 to helium 4 releases over 13 MeV per fusion event.
Lithium-7 fusion was usually ruled out because incident protons tend to knock nucleons out of the Li nuclei. That occurs at high proton energies. This proposed methodology uses low energy protons. Figure 1 strongly suggests they will fuse under solar fusion conditions, rather than knock nucleons out. Each proton to lithium-7 fusion event releases 17 MeV, without neutrons.
They are the PPI and PPII reactions in figure 1. An important feature is they both involve 4 protons in their fusion. That is strong evidence that like charge proton repulsion is not a significant issue in solar fusion. That is verified in figure 2.
It is possible the reactors could be fine tuned to enable two deuterons to fuse directly with each other to form helium-4 and release 24 MeV. That reaction does not occur in the sun because the deuterons quickly fuse with the protons to form helium 3.
In all situations, the fuels used are in great abundance. Their fusion provides high energy yields without releasing neutrons. That overcomes a huge hurdle associated with all conventional fusion reactors.
Other features include that the design is flexible and scaleable. Reactors capable of generating 1 MW should be able to housed in a shipping container. The reactors would operate at below their maximum rated capability. Their response time depends upon the thermal inertia of the reactors. Changes to their fuel input is as fast as adjusting a dial.
It goes without saying that these fusion reactors have no radioactivity associated with them. Should they overheat, be sabotaged or experience other problems, they will just stop working.
All of the principles for this proposed fusion mechanism have been independently tested. They have not been jointly tested in the proposed reactors. As with all development projects, no guarantee can be given as to their success. If the proposed reactors do not generate sufficient fusion, the other techniques currently under consideration will not succeed.
All things considered, reproducing the sun's fusion mechanism offers many possible advantages over the current methodologies. These include:
a) Using abundant nuclei like hydrogen, deuterium and lithium
b) Low energies, possibly < 5 keV
c) Fusion without generating neutrons
d) Smaller and cheaper fusion reactors
e) Confined fusion offers the high probability that all nuclei used in the reactors will be fused and generate heat at a much faster rate than the power consumed to induce their fusion.
Implementation
All the above is based on a theory founded on the way that fusion works in the sun. It only works that way because of the structure of the nucleons and nuclei, as indicated in figures 3 to 5 inclusive.
In this study, the mechanisms associated with the strong nuclear force and the ways in which nucleons form nuclei, are well known. Understanding how fusion occurs makes it much easier to design the equipment and methodology to make controlled nuclear fusion happen.
All of the physical principles applied in these proposed quantum fusion reactors are established in their individual disciplines and applications. They need to be combined into a design for fusion reactions that do not generate neutrons.
A prototype has not yet been constructed. The mechanism suggests that the proposed fusion reactors will be smaller, cheaper and quicker to build than the reactors associated current fusion develpment projects. Existing reactor projects use tritons, 3T, which do not occur naturally. Their emitted neutrons make the material in their housing radioactive and brittle.
Current fusion practitioners do not know the nature of the strong nuclear force. Without that, the uncertainty of how fusion occurs makes their task difficult.
No estimates can be given for the funds required or the time needed to get working fusion powered reactors working. The best that can be said is that the smaller equipment and advanced in principle designs mean both should be significantly less than those currently stated for the major projects.
The advantages of the successful implementation of this technology cannot be overstated. This methodology has the advantage of being based firmly in nuclear physics that we understand well and reproducing the fusion reactions that occur in the sun. Proving the concept will only occur by building and testing a quantum fusion reactor. The initial model would be a low MeV reactor. It could be scaled up when its operating parameters are established. The versatility of this technology suggests a 1 MeV reactor could be housed in a shipping container. Water for steam to provide power is additional.
Opportunities
This is a new approach to fusion. Its theory is based on advanced nuclear research that explains how fusion occurs in the sun at energies much lower than those proposed in other approaches. Proof of this model will require building and testing a reactor. We consider the advanced scientific foundations give this technology a higher possibility of achieving successful fusion than other projects.
A successful outcome will provide the technology needed for humanity's long term power needs. The process is scaleable. Indications are that the equipment for this technology will be smaller and cheaper to build and operate than other technologies for the same power output.
ETP Semra funded this research. Quicycle has aided and will continue to assist in this project. For corporations or countries wishing to be renewable energy super powers, this represents what is possibly the best opportunity currently available!
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The above is different from aspects of the science used in current fusion studies. Figure 2 is the reality of fusion. That is a strong indication that solar fusion is very different from the current understanding. That difference is expanded into alternative fusion possibilities.